Ischaemic Pain and Cold-induced Pain Experiment

Ischaemic Pain and Cold-induced Pain Experiment Results Ice water seems to bring about 60% more pain than tourniquet. Placebo was quite effective against tourniquet (91.7% ±4.33) and had no effect on ice water (100.7% ±2.74) which appeared to be the second strongest drug. Paracetamol 1000mg combined with 8mg of codeine had negative effect on tourniquet (105.9% ±7.91) as students sensed more pain after taking drugs, and slight effect on ice water (97.2% ±3.17) which made it become the weakest drug. Paracetamol 1000mg reduced the pain for tourniquet significantly (88.6% ±7.94) and also did well against ice water (95.2% ±3.55). Paracetamol 1000mg acted as the best drug for both tourniquet and ice water treatment. These results are shown in Figures 1 and 2 ( see Appendices for raw data and summary data).   Figure 1. Effects of drugs on mean pain response sensed from tourniquet and ice water. Mean pain units were measured for both tourniquet and ice water method for students. Students were then separated into groups A, B and C to take drug placebo, paracetamol 1000mg + Codeine 8mg and paracetamol 1000mg respectively. After 45 minutes the mean pain units were measured again for all of the students ( ± standard error, n=24). Figure 2 Effects of drugs on mean % pain control response sensed from tourniquet and ice water. Mean pain units were measured for both tourniquet and ice water method for students. Students were then separated into groups A, B and C to take drug placebo, paracetamol 1000mg + Codeine 8mg and paracetamol 1000mg respectively. After 45 minutes the mean pain units were measured again for all of the students . The pain levels after taking drugs were then divided by the pain units before taking drugs for each student to get the mean % control response ( ± standard error, n=24). Discussion Paracetamol is able to inhibit the cyclooxygenase (COX) and it is highly selective for Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II( COX-2) (Burkhard Hinz2008). Inhibition of COX enzymes causes the concentration of prostaglandin E2 to decrease, as a result, the hypothalamic set-point is lowered to reduce fever and the descending inhibitory serotonergic pathways is activated to produce analgesia (Anderson BJ 2008). Codeine is a pretty weak opioid analgesic. It has to be converted into morphine to function, this can be activated by the CYP2D6 metabolic. Codeine can reduce the analgesic efficacy in as the way it slow down the metabolizer of the drug(C. Mattia 2015). The combination of Paracetamol 1000mg with codeine 8mg is found to be more effective and safer than just using paracetamol or codeine (Aust Dent 2002). On the other hand, placebo would simply have no effect on pain level as it is just a sugar pill. As morphine inhibits hot and cold pain by inhibiting HPC but increases the firing of the cold cells, this leads to the burning sensation (Mogil 1999). This directly causes the paracetamol + codeine combination did not act what we thought, the burning sensation reduced the effectiveness of pain relief. As a result, for the ice water test, paracetamol worked as the best treatment and placebo was the weakest treatment. And for the tourniquet test which causes ischemic pain, muscle contraction increases hydrogen ions causes pH decreases and leads to acidosis, and infusion rate of acidic buffer increased and causes pain (Issberner 1996). However codeine and its product morphine are both hydrogen donors and would further increase the concentration of hydrogen inside muscle and causes more pain (Atkinson AP 2011). This explains why the paracetamol + codeine had negative effect on tourniquet test. The experiment result did not match up with hypothesis as paracetamol with codeine is not the most effective drug for both ice water and tourniquet tests. There are some steps for this experiment that can be improved. First of all at the beginning of the experiment, students cells were asleep and takes time to wake up and sense the pain correctly. Especially for ice water, as human skin would always get covered by a layer of oil secreted by sebaceous glands and dirt from environment mixture, the first attempt in ice water would take time to wash the layer off the skin and causes less pain sensed, after taking drugs, students arm were no longer protected and therefore would sense a stronger pain level faster, also the amount of ice in the tank was different and might causes error for the result. For tourniquet, students might not squeeze the rubble bulb correctly and causes difference between two runs. This experiment can be improved by getting a rubble bulb that squeeze itself automatically each time with same strength; maintain the ice water with same amount of ice and temperature; put arm into the ice water to wash off the layer and also wake it up before attempt the experiment, after five minutes of recovery (let the arm to warm up and get dried) then start the experiment. This experiment result can be used in clinical treatment and develop pain-relief drugs. In conclusion, the paracetamol 1000mg is the most effective drug to relieve both ischaemic pain and cold-induced pain. Appendices Table 1. Raw data collected and summary data for pain sensed before and after taking placebo. The mean, median, standard deviation (stdev), standard error of the mean (SEM) and n values calculated for pain units and % of pain changed before and after taking placebo.Mean pain units were measured for both tourniquet and ice water method for students. Student took placebo and after 45 minutes the mean pain units were measured again for all of the students . The pain levels after taking drugs were then divided by the pain units before taking drugs for each student to get the mean % control response ( n=24). Tourniquet 0 Tourniquet 45 Ice water 0 Ice water 45 Tourniquet % control Ice Water % Control 380 390 625 640 102.6 102.4 335 260 610 670 77.6 109.8 332 150 655 627 45.2 95.7 400 250 375 350 62.5 93.3 401 295 564 592 73.6 105.0 275 200 563 570 72.7 101.2 320 255 675 575 79.7 85.2 265 305 265 300 115.1 113.2 191 200 577 482 104.7 83.5 447 397 672 660 88.8 98.2 169 190 668 646 112.4 96.7 245 295 580 535 120.4 92.2 280 300 485 390 107.1 80.4 475 430 675 605 90.5 89.6 270 285 550 620 105.6 112.7 390 300 575 585 76.9 101.7 380 388 663 675 102.1 101.8 275 310 445 500 112.7 112.4 225 150 385 570 66.7 148.1 543 580 140 145 106.8 103.6 400 425 575 525 106.3 91.3 325 400 700 700 123.1 100.0 161 138 291 277 85.7 95.2 395 243 680 697 61.5 102.5 n 24 24 24 24 24 24 median 328.5 295 576 580 96.3 100.6 mean 328.29 297.33 541.38 539.00 91.7 100.7 stdev 96.97 106.14 150.86 146.49 21.2 13.4 SEM 19.79 21.67 30.79 29.90 4.33 2.74 Table 2. Raw data collected and summary data for pain sensed before and after taking paracetamol 1000mg + codeine 8mg. The mean, median, standard deviation (stdev), standard error of the mean (SEM) and n values calculated for pain units and % of pain changed before and after taking placebo.Mean pain units were measured for both tourniquet and ice water method for students. Student took paracetamol 1000mg + codeine 8mgand after 45 minutes the mean pain units were measured again for all of the students . The pain levels after taking drugs were then divided by the pain units before taking drugs for each student to get the mean % control response ( n=24). Tourniquet 0 Tourniquet 45 Ice water 0 Ice water 45 Tourniquet % control Ice Water % Control 380 340 630 625 89.5 99.2 533 538 471 525 100.9 111.5 225 320 550 565 142.2 102.7 350 275 597 585 78.6 98.0 345 150 647 675 43.5 104.3 575 260 645 520 45.2 80.6 175 300 425 530 171.4 124.7 249 234 353 299 94.0 84.7 280 160 600 520 57.1 86.7 255 163 648 615 63.9 94.9 263 250 660 665 95.1 100.8 260 280 355 340 107.7 95.8 200 375 440 420 187.5 95.5 185 160 540 325 86.5 60.2 435 368 600 595 84.6 99.2 345 315 535 435 91.3 81.3 315 265 472 575 84.1 121.8 220 300 575 600 136.4 104.3 450 545 565 683 121.1 120.9 235 418 476 523 177.9 109.9 125 160 595 555 128.0 93.3 277 370 670 660 133.6 98.5 60 63 511 500 105.0 97.8 460 540 565 378 117.4 66.9 n 24 24 24 24 24 24 median 270 290 565 542.5 98.0 98.2 mean 299.88 297.88 546.88 529.71 105.9 97.2 stdev 125.33 127.25 92.13 112.04 38.8 15.5 SEM 25.58 25.97 18.81 22.87 7.91 3.17 Table 3 Raw data collected and summary data for pain sensed before and after taking paracetamol 1000mg. The mean, median, standard deviation (stdev), standard error of the mean (SEM) and n values calculated for pain units and % of pain changed before and after taking placebo.Mean pain units were measured for both tourniquet and ice water method for students. Student took paracetamol 1000mgand after 45 minutes the mean pain units were measured again for all of the students . The pain levels after taking drugs were then divided by the pain units before taking drugs for each student to get the mean % control response ( n=24). Tourniquet 0 Tourniquet 45 Ice water 0 Ice water 45 Tourniquet % control Ice Water % Control 460 480 390 370 104.3 94.9 584 400 980 674 68.5 68.8 250 350 550 625 140.0 113.6 210 225 585 610 107.1 104.3 300 175 590 555 58.3 94.1 455 415 530 600 91.2 113.2 165 100 460 390 60.6 84.8 280 80 600 400 28.6 66.7 257 195 640 645 75.9 100.8 195 185 555 550 94.9 99.1 242 200 560 612 82.6 109.3 270 260 405 250 96.3 61.7 330 310 605 635 93.9 105.0 295 240 445 375 81.4 84.3 313 253 695 655 80.8 94.2 61 85 380 290 139.3 76.3 205 330 525 570 161.0 108.6 165 50 325 435 30.3 133.8 180 260 675 550 144.4 81.5 230 125 585 615 54.3 105.1 373 363 585 443 97.3 75.7 170 250 650 625 147.1 96.2 275 25 270 300 9.1 111.1 528 415 585 595 78.6 101.7 n 24 24 24 24 24 24 median 263.5 245 572.5 562.5 86.9 97.6 mean 283.04 240.46 548.75 515.38 88.6 95.2 stdev 123.24 125.39 143.93 131.49 38.9 17.4 SEM 25.16 25.60 29.38 26.84 7.94 3.55 References Anderson BJ. Paracetamol (acetaminophen): mechanisms of action. Pediatr Anesth 2008;18:915-21. Aust Dent J. 2002 Jun;47(2):147-51.Paracetamol versus paracetamol-codeine in the treatment of post-operative dental pain: a randomized, double-blind, prospective trial. Macleod AG1, Ashford B, Voltz M, Williams B, Cramond T, Gorta L, Simpson JM Burkhard Hinz,Olga Cheremina and Kay Brune, February 2008, The FASEB Journalvol. 22 no. 2 383-390 C. Mattia, F. Coluzzi, 2015,A look inside the association codeine-paracetamol: clinical pharmacology supports analgesic efficacy, Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci, Vol. 19 N. 3, Pages: 507-516. Oxford, 2007, league table of analgesic efficacy, viewed 13 May 2015, http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/painpag/acutrev/analgesics/leagtab.html. Issberner, Reeh and Steen (1996) Pain due to tissue acidosis: a mechanism for inflammatory and ischemic myalgia? Neuroscience Letters, Vol 208, 191-194. Mogil and Adhikari (1999) Hot and cold nociception are genetically correlated. The Journal of Neuroscience, Vol 19, RC25, 1-5.

Goals of Social Studies Essay

Overview The term â€Å"social studies† usually designates the introductory and intermediate level of social science education at the elementary and secondary school levels. However, it also encompasses a good amount of specialized knowledge drawn from fields of study that are usually found in post-secondary instruction, such as economics, political science, sociology and anthropology. The goals of a social studies education are to instill students with an intimate knowledge of their history, cultural values and civic responsibilities. Social Competency and Literacy One of the most basic goals of a social studies education is to promote social competency and literacy. It is important that students living in advanced industrial societies understand how those societies function. Students should be highly literate, because their ability to maneuver through society often depends upon it. The social sciences often require a large amount of reading and writing in their curriculum, the content of which is usually designed to give students an idea of how their society is structured. These two goals provide students with a certain amount of social mobility. Online Management Courses ucpmarjononline.co.uk/Management Boost Your Career Prospects w/ Our Online BA and MBA in Management! Ads by Google Social Knowledge Another goal of social science education is to introduce students to the values of their own native society. In the U.S., this means students are taught democratic principles, our particular style of government and the history behind both. While students are often urged to commit to these principles, ideally they are introduced in such a way that they do not have to personally adopt them, but merely understand them to effectively function within their society. Critical Thinking and Analysis Critical thinking and analytical skills are fostered as tools for  understanding and evaluating the values and institutions that make up the students’ society. These skills also are developed as valuable assets in their own right, because they are easily transferable to other areas of study and have private and professional applications in the real world. Comparative Society Another important objective in social science education is to instill in students an understanding and tolerance of the social values, norms and practices of other cultures and foreign societies. This is usually achieved through the study of world history. Students should be able to understand that the majority of social norms and cultural differences are relative, and they should learn to treat such differences with tolerance and respect. Civic Efficacy Perhaps the most important goal of a social studies education is to help students develop a sense of their roles and responsibilities as citizens. Students are taught the importance of making well-informed decisions and how to work within the channels of civic action available to them. In the U.S., for example, this means teaching students the gravity of the democratic process and urging them to take part by exercising their constitutional rights, voting and expressing dissent.

Environmental changes Essay

Organizations adapt to environmental changes such as the adoption of a new technology, a change in market dynamic or new regulatory policies and as such the Affordable Care Act was put into place (Frates, 2014). The Affordable Care Act puts consumers back in charge of their health care. Under the law, a new â€Å"Patient’s Bill of Rights† gives the American people the stability and flexibility they need to make informed choices about their health (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2014). This has made leaders feel as if the government is making all the health decisions about a patient instead of allowing the physicians to do so. With that said, leaders must apply strategic management into their organizations by creating short term strategic planning which allows the office to meet incremental milestones on the path to an ultimate goal creates an opportunity to highlight achievements, identify and resolve setbacks, and encourage forward motion (Burger & Giger, 2014). Contingency Theory and Resource Dependence Theory are applicable to health care organizations due to the environmental dependency. With health care as unpredictable as it is having both theories used allows the facilities to be prepared for multiple different outcomes. Frates, J. (2014). Health care management: Theory in action. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. Burger, J., & Giger, A. (2014, February 13). How Healthcare Organizations Can Improve This Year. Retrieved from http://businessjournal.gallup.com/content/167108/healthcare-organizations-improve-year.aspx U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2014, October 2). About the Law | HHS.gov/healthcare. Retrieved from http://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/rights/ Markets have been increasingly complex, turbulent, and interrelated. Actual and potential opportunities and threats to an organization’s existing market(s) must be identified and evaluated (Hitt, Ireland, & Hoskisson, 2013). Today’s business environment requires the decision makers to shape the organization as a dynamic organization that can rapidly initiate and implement strategic processes and respond quickly to strategic changes in the industry or to strategic processes of competitors in as short a period of time as possible. This Discussion also asks: How can healthcare leaders apply strategic management to their organizations? Healthcare leaders can apply strategic management to their organizations by ensuring all the task and activities include it in small bits and pieces of the change. Once that change is completed with no problems a new task can be added to the list. Sometimes smaller changes go unnoticed and are quicker to be accepted than a larger change that employees feel are pushed onto them.

Qué es estatus PRUCOL y qué inmigrantes están amparados

Los inmigrantes PRUCOL son indocumentados que pueden tener acceso a algunos beneficios sociales. Los derechos que pueden tener depende de cada estado. PRUCOL significa residente permanente bajo el color de la ley, segà ºn sus siglas en inglà ©s. No es una de las 7 situaciones migratorias creadas por las leyes, sino que es consecuencia de una sentencia judicial. Para ser amparado por PRUCOL los requisitos son los siguientes: estar en Estados Unidos como indocumentadoque el gobierno federal sepa de la presencia en el paà ­s de se inmigrantey que a pesar de estar indocumentado el gobierno ha manifestado su intencià ³n de no proceder a su deportacià ³n, expulsià ³n o remocià ³n de Estados Unidos. Esto puede suceder porque el migrante se encuentra en una categorà ­a contra la que el gobierno no actà ºa para deportar o porque se le ha notificado al inmigrante que no va a ser deportado. Tienen que darse al mismo tiempo esos tres requisitos Ejemplos de situaciones migratorias que pueden ser amparadas por PRUCOL Personas en proceso de ajuste de estatusSolicitantes de asiloMigrantes con un Estatus de Proteccià ³n Temporal (TPS, por sus siglas en inglà ©s)Situaciones de cancelacià ³n de la deportacià ³n (cancellation of removal)Suspensià ³n de la deportacià ³nAccià ³n Diferida (DACA, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) para muchachos que llegaron a USA antes de cumplir los 16 aà ±os y reà ºnen otros requisitos.Las personas extranjeras que al llegar a una aduana de Estados Unidos no cumplà ­an los requisitos para el ingreso pero se les permitià ³ un parole por razones humanitarias   y hace menos de un aà ±o de esa situacià ³n. Por ejemplo, caso de cubanos por pies secos pies mojados o de haitianos.Las và ­ctimas de violencia o de trà ¡fico de personas que han solicitado una visa U o una T.Migrantes que han solicitado por carta un alivio de la deportacià ³n hace mà ¡s de seis meses y no han obtenido una respuesta por parte de las autoridades. Beneficios sociales que pueden tener las personas consideradas PRUCOL Va a depender de cada estado. Algunos no conceden ningà ºn derecho, mientras que otros conceden algunos, como por ejemplo Nueva York, Nuevo Mà ©xico, Nueva Jersey, Maine, Massachusetts, Virginia, Hawaii y Pennsylvania. California se encuentra entre los mà ¡s generosos. Por otro lado, Texas, casa de aproximadamente el 14 por ciento del total de indocumentados presentes en USA, no brinda beneficios para los PRUCOL. Como los derechos y los requisitos cambian de estado a estado, verificar con las administraciones del lugar en el que se reside. Entre los beneficios mà ¡s comunes para los PRUCOL en los estados que asà ­ lo permiten se encuentran: MedicaidSSI/SSP, ingresos y pagos complementarios.CAPI, programa de asistencia en dinero, dependiendo de la edad o si sufren una incapacidad.SNAP, programa de asistencia para alimentos. En California se conoce como CalFreshAdemà ¡s, en California hay mà ¡s programas especà ­ficos de ese estado, como CFAP, programa de asistencia para comidas que puede aplicar a algunso PRUCOL y CalWORKS. Ademà ¡s, todos los indocumentados, incluso los que no son PRUCOL, tienen beneficios como Medicaid de Emergencia, que incluye entre otras medidas el parto y nacimiento de un bebà ©, y tambià ©n WIC, que es un programa de asistencia para alimentos para embarazadas, lactantes y bebà ©s. A tener en cuenta   No confundir PRUCOL con qualified immigrant, que es el requisito que pide el gobierno federal para tener acceso a programas financiados federalmente. Los PRUCOL no son inmigrantes cualificados a estos efectos. Asimismo, las personas que ingresaron a Estados Unidos antes del 22 de agosto de 1996 podrà ­an tener acceso a mayores beneficios sociales, ya que para ellos aplica una ley anterior.   Por à ºltimo, tener presente que PRUCOL no da derecho a obtener la tarjeta de residencia ni la ciudadanà ­a americana. Muchos inmigrantes PRUCOL podrà ¡n legalizarse siguiendo un camino especà ­fico para su caso, pero otros muchos permanecerà ¡n toda su vida en esa situacià ³n de indocumentados a los que se les permite permanecer en Estados Unidos. Este artà ­culo es sà ³lo informativo. No es consejo legal.